A Cross-Cultural Investigation
of Sex Differences and Developmental Trends
in Regard to Direct and Indirect Aggression
An On-Going Research Project
Kaj Björkqvist
Abstract
Aggressive behavior among approx. 5500 school children of three age groups: 8-, 11-, and 15-years of age, is being studied with the same methodology in the following countries: Finland, India (Delhi), Israel, Italy, Poland, Puerto Rico, Russia, and U.S.A. (Chicago). At the present stage, data from these samples has been collected, coded and analyzed, and some of the results have been reported in scientific journals, while other reports are in the stage of preparation. Data has now been collected also in China (Beijing), Australia, and data collection is planned in Lithuania.
Aggressive behavior is estimated with the Direct & Indirect Aggression Scales (DIAS), measuring three types of aggression (physical, verbal, and indirect). The main object is to investigate sex differences and developmental trends in these different styles of aggression, in a cross-cultural perspective, in order to explore the extent to which findings pertaining to sex differences and developmental trends in adolescent aggressive behavior are universal, or vary among cultures.
DIAS is primarily based on peer estimations, but in the present project, self estimations and teacher estimations were also obtained, and DIAS was furthermore used in a 'victim' version, i.e. it was measured to what extent the pupils were victimized by others' physical, verbal, or indirect aggression. Like the aggressor version, the victim version of DIAS was used in peer, self, and teacher estimations.
Besides aggressive behavior, sociometric data, locus of control, and sex role attitudes were measured. Sociological and demographic data, particularly focusing on criminal and socioeconomic statistics, and on the position of women in society, were collected, in order to relate findings on adolescent aggressive behavior to these.
A brief description of the present status of the project
INTRODUCTION
Background
The research project investigating sex differences and developmental trends in interpersonal aggression was commenced in the latter part of the 1980s. The project is based on the realization that human aggressive behavior may take other forms than physical ones, such as verbal and indirect forms. Direct verbal aggression occurs when the aggressor tries intimidate or injure the attacked person psychologically, by for instance verbal abuse and threats. Indirect aggression implies that the target is attacked not directly, but circuitously through social manipulation, whereby the aggressor attempts to remain unidentified and thus avoid counterattack. Typical examples are scheming, backbiting, and other forms of social manipulation. This type of aggression requires a certain amount of social intelligence, which animals and young children do not have (with some exceptions; cf. Holmström, 1992). It is a highly economic form of aggression, with a favorable effect/danger ratio (Björkqvist et al, 1994).
In a number of research reports, we have shown that indirect aggression is a type of hostile behavior more typical of females than of males (cf. Lagerspetz et al, 1988; Björkqvist et al, 1992a, 1992b; Österman et al, 1994). This finding has later been replicated by other independent researchers (e.g., Fry & Hines, 1993; Owen, 1996) and the notion is now widely recognized within the scientific community and has paved its way into the textbooks (cf. for instance Durkin, 1995; Franzoi, 1996).
The findings shed light not only on sex differences in aggression, but also on how aggressive behavior changes and develops during the life course, especially during childhood and adolescence. Björkqvist et al (1992a, 1992b) presented a theory according to which aggressive behavior tends to appear in the following order: 1) direct physical, 2) direct verbal, and 3) indirect aggression. Gross aggressive techniques are gradually replaced by more refined ones, over age. Young children (and animals), who lack verbal skills, have to resort to physical aggression such as hitting, kicking, biting, and shoving; when verbal ability develops, this will add remarkably to the aggressive repertoire, allowing for verbal threats, shouting, and other forms of direct verbal aggression. The development of social intelligence and skills makes a third style and stage possible, namely that of indirect aggression. Since girls develop faster than boys in terms of social intelligence, indirect aggression is likely to appear at an earlier stage among them. Also due to other reasons, such as relative physical strength, females are likely to be socialized into a preference for indirect rather than direct forms of aggression. Physical aggression, being a dangerous type of aggression also for the perpetrator, is likely to be replaced by verbal and indirect forms, within both sexes, when the required skills have been developed. This has been corroborated in our studies (e.g., ibid.; see also Österman et al, 1998).
Among adults, the sex difference in regard to indirect aggression appears to diminish or almost disappear (Björkqvist et al, 1994), with the males "catching up" the female advantage. However, males and females display indirect aggression in different ways, with a male preference for what we have referred to as rational-appearing aggression, rather than social manipulation in the traditional sense.
The relationship between social intelligence, empathy, and different types of conflict behavior has been investigated (Kaukianen et al, 1996; Björkqvist et al, in press). It was found, in accordance with the hypothesis, that social intelligence is required for both aggression and peaceful conflict resolution, but that the presence of empathy serves as a mitigator of aggression. The more empathy, the less aggression, and the more peaceful conflict resolution. The more sophisticated and refined type of aggression, the more social intelligence is required. Social intelligence covaries more with indirect than with verbal, and more with verbal than with physical aggression.
link to a doctoral dissertation within the project
The aim of the cross-cultural study
One important research issue is to investigate the extent to which the findings made by our research group in Finland may be generalized to other cultures and nations. As mentioned, our findings have indeed later been corroborated by independent researchers in other nations, with similar techniques, but there has been a need for a controlled study conducted in different cultures, based on an identical methodology in each sample. Since aggression is a kind of behavior often governed by strict norms, cultural variation is to be expected. The question is, to what extent such variation concerns also sex differences and developmental trends.
Funding
In September 1990, the Academy of Finland provided a grant for the purpose of examining this question, and in 1993, a second grant. Their support made the study possible. The total value of these two grants was 1.5 million FIM. Furthermore, the project has been supported by grants from the Research Foundation of Åbo Akademi University, the Research Foundation of the University of Turku, and the Eemil Aaltonen Foundation.
PROCEDURE AND METHOD
Participating countries
Samples from the following countries were included: Finland, India (Delhi), Israel, Italy, Poland, Puerto Rico, Russia, U.S.A. (Chicago). Data from all these countries has been collected and analyzed, and research reports are either written or in the stage of preparation.
Later on, data has also been collected in China (Beijing), and in Australia (Adelaide), in the latter place only in the form of self-estimations, due to restrictions with permissions. Data collection in Lithuania is being planned. Several independent researchers have requested, and been given permission, to use our main instrument, the Direct & Indirect Aggression Scales, in their research.
Participants and samples
School children of three age groups, 8- 11-, and 15-years of age, from two different schools representing different social and cultural backgrounds (e.g., in racial or religious terms) participated in the study. The avarage sample size was 540. Samples from at least two subcultures were included in each country: for instance in India, participants were of Hindu, Sikh, or Moslem background; in Israel, orthodox and non-orthodox Jews; in Chicago, of both Caucasian suburban, middle-class background, as well as of African-American, inner-city background. Data of a total of 5500 children were collected.
Behaviors studied:
1) Aggression
2) Victimization to others' aggression
3) Conflict resolution
4) Social structure of the class
5) Sex role attitudes
6) Locus of control
7) Cultural-specific information
1) Aggression
Aggressive behavior was measured with the Direct & Indirect Aggression Scales (DIAS) (Björkqvist, Lagerspetz, and Österman; see Pro Facultate, 4, 1998). It allows for the measurement of three types of aggression: physical, direct verbal, and indirect aggression. See http://www.vasa.abo.fi/svf/up/dias.htm
The different styles of aggressive behavior were measured in three ways: by peer estimations, self estimations, and teacher estimations.
2) Victimization to others' aggression
The extent to which each child was a victim of the various measured styles of aggressive behavior was also measured, by use of what we refer to as the "victim version" of DIAS. The measurement was again conducted in three ways, in the forms of peer, self, and teacher estimations.
3) Conflict resolution
In addition to aggressive behavior, two types of peaceful conflict resolution was measured, with items added to DIAS: peaceful means of conflict resolution, and withdrawal, or conflict avoidance. These were likewise measured in three ways.
4) Social structure of the class
The social structure of each participating class was investigated with an advanced type of sociometry, Draw-Your-Class (D-Y-C) Sociometry, a technique invented by Cairns, Perrin and Cairns (1985), and further developed by our research group. It provides a sophisticated and detailed image of the social fabric of the class studied. It is also based on the peer estimation concept: each child of the class draws a map of existing social groups in the class, writing down exactly who is friends with whom, and what children belong to each group, allowing for a total map to be drawn. The findings provide information which is related to data on aggression, victimization, and conflict resolution.
5) Sex role attitudes
Sex differences in aggression are often thought to have a linkage with sex role attitudes. If cultural variation in aggression occurs, it is important to investigate the extent to which this variation covaries with sex role attitudes.
In order to investigate this question, a sex role attitude scale had to be developed, since a measure intended for children and adolescents was required, and it had to be as cultural-free as possible. No such instrument was to found in the literature, and, thus, the Sex Role Scale for Children (Björkqvist & Österman; see Pro Facultate, 4, 1998) was developed.
6) Locus of control
The Locus of Control Scale for Children by Nowicki and Strickland (1973) was also included in the test battery. In accordance with theory, overt aggression was expected to correlate with external locus of control. Accordingly, external locus of control might be more related to direct than to indirect forms of aggression. Sex, age, and cultural variation in locus of control is likely to occur, and it is of a certain interest to investigate whether this variation covaries with aggression.
7) Cultural-specific information
In order to understand cultural variation in regard to the results, information specific to each participating country was collected. These data consists mostly of information pertaining to sex roles and the status of women, and to socioeconomic and criminal statistics.
THE INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH TEAM
Although the project was planned and supervised by us, it could not have been successful without good collaborators in the participating countries. The following colleagues and their research assistants have participated in the collection of data:
Finland
Prof. Kaj Björkqvist, Åbo Akademi University
Karin Österman, Åbo Akademi University
Prof. Kirsti M. J. Lagerspetz, Turku University
Ari Kaukiainen, Åbo Akademi University
India
Prof. T. K. Oommen, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Dr. Josephine Oommen, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Israel
Prof. Simha F. Landau, Hebrew University, Jerusalem
Italy
Prof. GianVittorio Caprara, University of Rome "La Sapienza"
Dr. Concetta Pastorelli, University of Rome "La Sapienza"
Poland
Prof. Adam Fraczek, Polish Academy of Sciences
Marek Dudkiewicz, Polish Academy of Sciences
Puerto Rico
Prof. Maria Amelia Rodriguez, Caribbean Center for Postgraduate Studies, San Juan
Haymé Nazario, Caribbean Center for Postgraduate Studies, San Juan
Russia
Prof. Elena Bashkirova, Russian Academy of Sciences
Lada Polikanova, Russian Academy of Sciences
Alexander Victorovich Ka-fu, Ucraine Academy of Sciences
U. S. A.
Prof. L. Rowell Huesmann, University of Illinois, Chicago
Kathy Kelly, University of Illinois, Chicago
Besides these, the following students (in Finland) have participated in one way or the other:
Christina Salmivalli, Åsa Nilsson, Minna Hulkki, Sabine Charpentier, Katarzyna Platek, Kaj Svels, Roope Kankaanranta, Radhakrishnan, Leena Niskanen, Marianne Lindstedt, Lena Lönnfors, Seija Papaioannou, Annika Norrgård, Marina Maatela, Unto Ahvensalmi, Jukka Ginström, Janita Fagerholm, and Anne Ryttyläinen.
REFERENCES
Most important publications derived from the project so far:
(in alphabetic order)
Björkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30, 177-188.
Björkqvist, K. Lagerspetz, K. M. J. & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Developmental trends in regard to direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 117-127.
Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1993). Styles of aggression and sex differences: A developmental theory. Aggressive Behavior, 19, 11-12.
Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (in press). Social intelligence - empathy = aggression? Accepted for publication in Aggression and Violent Behavior, June 17, 1997.
Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen´, A. (1992). The development of direct and indirect aggressive strategies in males and females. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.), Of mice and women: Aspects of female aggression (pp. 51-64). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J., (1995). Sex differences and developmental trends in aggression: A comparison between Finland, Italy, Israel, and Poland. Aggressive Behavior, 21, 188.
Björkqvist, K. Österman, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J. (1994). Sex differences in covert aggression among adults. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 27-33.
Kankaanranta, R. V., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Björkqvist, K. (1993). Social structure of peer groups and indirect aggression among girls. Aggressive Behavior, 19, 55.
Kaukiainen, Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J.(1996). Social intelligence and empathy as antecedents of different types of aggression. In C.F. Ferris & T. Grisson (Eds.), Understanding aggressive behavior in children (pp. 364-366). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 794.
Kaukiainen, A., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Niskanen, L. (1995). Social intelligence and the use of indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 21, 188-189.
Kaukiainen, A., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K. & Jokila, M. (1993). Sex differences in indirect aggression during late adolescence. Aggressive Behavior, 19, 55-56.
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Björkqvist, K. (1994). Indirect aggression in boys and girls. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 131-150). New York: Plenum.
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K., & Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11- to 12-year-old children. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 403-414.
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J. (1995). Sex differences in styles of conflict resolution: A comparison between Finland, Italy, Israel, and Poland. Aggressive Behavior, 21, 188.
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J. (1995). Sociometric measures and aggression among adolescents in Finland, Italy, Israel, and Poland. Aggressive Behavior, 21, 181.
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Kaukiainen, A., Huesmann, L. H., & Fraczek, A. (1994). Peer and self-estimated aggression and victimization in 8-year-old children from five ethnic groups. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 411-428.
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Charpentier, S., Caprara, G.-V. & Pastorelli, C. (in press). Locus of control and three types of aggression. Accepted for publication in Aggressive Behavior, October 27, 1997.
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz,K. M. J., with Kaukiainen, A., Landau, S. F., Fraczek, A., & Caprara, G.-V. (1998). Cross-cultural evidence of female indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 24, 1-8.
- Reprinted in W. A Lesko (Ed.). (2000) Readings in social psychology: general, classic and contemporary selections (4th ed.). (pp. 312-319) New York: Allyn & Bacon.
Österman, K., Björkqvist, K, & Lagerspetz, K. M. J., with Landau, S. F.,Fraczek, A., & Pastorelli, C. (1997). Sex differences in styles of conflict resolution: A developmental and cross-cultural study with data from Finland, Israel, Italy, and Poland. In D. P. Fry, & K. Björkqvist (Eds.), Cultural variation in conflict resolution: Alternatives to violence (pp. 185-197). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Other references in the text
Cairns, R. B., Perrin, J. E., & Cairns, B. D. (1985). Social structure and social cognition in early adolescence: Affiliative patterns. Journal of Early Adolescence, 5, 339-355.
Durkin, K. (1995). Developmental social psychology. Cambridge, MS: Blackwell.
Franzoi, S. L. (1996). Social psychology. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark.
Fry, D. P., & Hines, N. (1993, July). Sex differences in indirect and direct aggression Argentina. Paper presented at the 3rd European Congress of Psychology, Tampere, Finland.
Holmström, R. (1992). Female aggression among the great apes. In K. Björkqvist & P. Niemelä (Eds.), Of mice and women. Aspects of female aggression (pp. 295-306).San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Nowicki, S., & Strickland, B. R. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 148-154.
Owen, L. D. (1996). Stick and stones and sugar and spice: Girls' and boys' aggression in schools. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 6, 45-55.